Evidence points to digital infrastructure and education as critical investments.
Abstract
This study examines the relationship between digital exclusion and access to essential services across six West African countries, using Afrobarometer Round 9 data (2021-2023). We construct a multidimensional digital-exclusion index based on digital-technology access and usage, then rigorously distinguish individual-level effects from district-level contextual effects on service outcomes. Three findings emerge. Educational attainment is the most powerful predictor of digital inclusion, substantially outweighing wealth effects. Territorial context dominates individual characteristics: Living in a digitally excluded district imposes far greater service-access penalties than being personally excluded within one’s district. Ethnic fractionalisation significantly amplifies district level digital exclusion. These findings call for prioritising place-based infrastructure investment alongside universal secondary education as the foundation for effective digital-inclusion strategies. Digitalisation of government services risks deepening existing inequalities unless accompanied by coordinated territorial investment.
Ibrahima Diallo Ibrahima Diallo heads the territorial development engineering master’s programme and is part of the GREDT Laboratory, Alioune Diop University, Senegal
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Nanamoudou Diakité Nanamoudou Diakité is a member of the GREDT Laboratory, Alioune Diop University.
Babacar Sene Babacar Sene is director of the Laboratoire de Finances pour le Développement, Cheikh Anta Diop University, Senegal.